The Regulatory Microenvironment in Feathers of Chickens Infected with Very Virulent Marek's Disease Virus.

Vaccines against Marek's disease can protect chickens against clinical disease; however, infected chickens continue to propagate the Marek's disease virus (MDV) in feather follicles and can shed the virus into the environment. Therefore, the present study investigated if MDV could induce an immunoregulatory microenvironment in feathers of chickens and whether vaccines can overcome the immune evasive mechanisms of MDV. The results showed an abundance of CD4+CD25+ and CD4+ transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß)+ T regulatory cells in the feathers of MDV-infected chickens at 21 days post-infection. In contrast, vaccinated chickens had a lower number of regulatory T cells. Furthermore, the expression of TGF-ß and programmed cell death receptor (PD)-1 increased considerably in the feathers of Marek's disease virus-infected chickens. The results of the present study raise the possibility of an immunoregulatory environment in the feather pulp of MDV-infected chickens, which may in turn favor replication of infectious MDV in this tissue. Exploring the evasive strategies employed by MDV will facilitate the development of control measures to prevent viral replication and transmission.

Exosome-Based Vaccines: Pros and Cons in the World of Animal Health.

Due to the emergence of antibiotic resistance and new and more complex diseases that affect livestock animal health and food security, the control of epidemics has become a top priority worldwide. Vaccination represents the most important and cost-effective measure to control infectious diseases in animal health, but it represents only 23% of the total global animal health market, highlighting the need to develop new vaccines. A recent strategy in animal health vaccination is the use of extracellular vesicles (EVs), lipid bilayer nanovesicles produced by almost all living cells, including both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. EVs have been evaluated as a prominent source of viral antigens to elicit specific immune responses and to develop new vaccination platforms as viruses and EVs share biogenesis pathways. Preliminary trials with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection (LCMV), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), and Marek's disease virus (MDV) have demonstrated that EVs have a role in the activation of cellular and antibody immune responses. Moreover, in parasitic diseases such as Eimeria (chickens) and Plasmodium yoelii (mice) protection has been achieved. Research into EVs is therefore opening an opportunity for new strategies to overcome old problems affecting food security, animal health, and emerging diseases. Here, we review different conventional approaches for vaccine design and compare them with examples of EV-based vaccines that have already been tested in relation to animal health.

The dominantly expressed class II molecule from a resistant MHC haplotype presents only a few Marek's disease virus peptides by using an unprecedented binding motif.

Viral diseases pose major threats to humans and other animals, including the billions of chickens that are an important food source as well as a public health concern due to zoonotic pathogens. Unlike humans and other typical mammals, the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) of chickens can confer decisive resistance or susceptibility to many viral diseases. An iconic example is Marek's disease, caused by an oncogenic herpesvirus with over 100 genes. Classical MHC class I and class II molecules present antigenic peptides to T lymphocytes, and it has been hard to understand how such MHC molecules could be involved in susceptibility to Marek's disease, given the potential number of peptides from over 100 genes. We used a new in vitro infection system and immunopeptidomics to determine peptide motifs for the 2 class II molecules expressed by the MHC haplotype B2, which is known to confer resistance to Marek's disease. Surprisingly, we found that the vast majority of viral peptide epitopes presented by chicken class II molecules arise from only 4 viral genes, nearly all having the peptide motif for BL2*02, the dominantly expressed class II molecule in chickens. We expressed BL2*02 linked to several Marek's disease virus (MDV) peptides and determined one X-ray crystal structure, showing how a single small amino acid in the binding site causes a crinkle in the peptide, leading to a core binding peptide of 10 amino acids, compared to the 9 amino acids in all other reported class II molecules. The limited number of potential T cell epitopes from such a complex virus can explain the differential MHC-determined resistance to MDV, but raises questions of mechanism and opportunities for vaccine targets in this important food species, as well as providing a basis for understanding class II molecules in other species including humans.

An Anti-Tumor Vaccine Against Marek's Disease Virus Induces Differential Activation and Memory Response of γδ T Cells and CD8 T Cells in Chickens.

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is a highly oncogenic alphaherpesvirus that causes deadly T-cell lymphomas and serves as a natural virus-induced tumor model in chickens. The most efficacious vaccine, CVI988/Rispens (CVI988), against MD has been used for several decades. However, the mechanisms leading to protective immunity following vaccination are not fully understood. In this study, employing multi-parameter flow cytometry, we performed a comprehensive analysis of T cell responses in CVI988-vaccinated chickens. CVI988 vaccination induced significant expansion of γδ T cells and CD8α+ T cells but not CD4+ T cells in spleen, lung and blood at early time-points. The expansion of these cells was CVI988-specific as infection with very virulent MDV RB1B did not elicit expansion of either γδ or CD8α+ T cells. Phenotypic analysis showed that CVI988 vaccination elicited preferential proliferation of CD8α+ γδ T cells and CD8αα co-receptor expression was upregulated on γδ T cells and CD8α+ T cells after immunization. Additionally, cell sorting and quantitative RT-PCR showed that CVI988 vaccination activated γδ T cells and CD8α+ T cells which exhibited differential expression of cytotoxic and T cell-related cytokines. Lastly, secondary immunization with CVI988 induced the expansion of CD8+ T cells but not γδ T cells at higher magnitude, compared to primary immunization, suggesting CVI988 did induce memory CD8+ T cells but not γδ T cells in chickens. Our results, for the first time, reveal a potential role of γδ T cells in CVI988-induced immune protection and provide new insights into the mechanism of immune protection against oncogenic MDV.

DEAD/DEAH-box helicase 5 is hijacked by an avian oncogenic herpesvirus to inhibit interferon beta production and promote viral replication.

DEAD-box helicase 5 (DDX5) plays a significant role in tumorigenesis and regulates viral replication of several viruses. An avian oncogenic herpesvirus, Marek's disease virus (MDV), is widely known to cause immunosuppression and lymphoma in chickens. However, the underlying mechanisms of how DDX5 plays a role in viral replication remain unclear. In this study, we show that MDV inhibits the production of interferon beta (IFN-ß) in chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEFs) by increasing the expression level and promoting the nuclear aggregation of DDX5. We further reveal how DDX5 down-regulates melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5/toll-like receptor 3 signaling through the fundamental transcription factor, interferon regulatory factor 1. MDV replication is suppressed, and the production of IFN-ß is promoted in the DDX5 absented CEFs. Taken together, our investigations demonstrate that MDV inhibits IFN-ß production by targeting DDX5-mediated signaling to facilitate viral replication, which offers a novel insight into the mechanism by which an avian oncogenic herpesvirus replicates in chicken cells.

Efficacy of a turkey herpesvirus double construct vaccine (HVT-ND-IBD) against challenge with different strains of Newcastle disease, infectious bursal disease and Marek's disease viruses.

A double construct vaccine of turkey herpesvirus (HVT) was prepared that contains the fusion (F) gene from Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and the viral protein 2 (VP2) gene from infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV). Safety of the vaccine (HVT-ND-IBD) was confirmed and efficacy was evaluated after subcutaneous (SC) vaccination at 1 day of age or the in ovo route of vaccination. Challenges were performed with velogenic NDV strains (Texas GB and Herts Weybridge 33/56), with different strains of IBDV (classical strain STC; very virulent strain CS89 and variant E strain) and with Marek's disease virus (MDV) strain RB1B. Vaccination with HVT-ND-IBD induced a high level of protection against these challenges. Vaccination with HVT is often combined with Rispens CVI988 vaccine and live ND vaccines for higher and earlier, MD and ND protection, respectively. HVT-ND-IBD vaccination in combination with these vaccines showed MD protection as early as 4 days post vaccination and ND protection as early as 2 weeks post vaccination. The long protection as seen with HVT vaccination was confirmed by demonstrating protection against NDV up to 60 weeks. Finally, to evaluate the performance of the vaccine in commercial birds with maternally-derived antibodies, two field trials were performed, using in ovo vaccination in broilers and SC vaccination in combination with Rispens CVI988 vaccine in layer-type birds. The efficacy was confirmed for all components by challenges. These results demonstrate that HVT-ND-IBD is a safe and highly efficacious vaccine for simultaneous control of ND, IBD and MD. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS A double construct HVT vaccine with the NDV F and the IBDV VP2 genes was prepared. The vaccine protects against three important diseases: MDV, NDV and IBDV. In ovo and sub-cutaneous vaccination was evaluated in the field in commercial chickens.

Gut microbiota is associated with protection against Marek's disease virus infection in chickens.

Marek's Disease Virus (MDV) infects chickens via respiratory route and causes lymphomas in internal organs including gastrointestinal tract. MDV infection causes a shift in the gut microbiota composition. However, interactions between the gut microbiota and immune responses against MDV infection are not well understood. Therefore, the current study was performed to understand the effect of the gut microbiota on Marek's disease (MD) pathogenesis. The findings showed that depletion of gut microbiota increased the severity of MD in infected chickens. In addition, an increase in the transcription of interferon (IFN)-α, IFN-ß and IFN-γ in the bursa of Fabricius at 4 days post-infection (dpi) was observed in the gut microbiota depleted chickens. The observations in this study shed more light on the association between the gut microbiota and MDV infection in chickens. More research is needed to explore the mechanisms of involvement of the gut microbiota in immunity against MD in chickens.

Marek's disease virus oncogene Meq expression in infected cells in vaccinated and unvaccinated hosts.

Marek's disease (MD) vaccines are unique in their capability to prevent MD lymphomas as early as a few days after vaccination, despite the fact that they do not eliminate virulent viruses from the host. To help understand the mechanism behind this unique MD vaccine effect, we compared the expression of MDV oncoprotein Meq among CD4+ T cells between vaccinated and unvaccinated birds. Chickens were vaccinated by an MD vaccine, herpesvirus of turkeys, and then challenged by a recombinant virulent MDV that expresses green fluorescent protein simultaneously with Meq. We found significantly fewer Meq-expressing CD4+ T cells appeared in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of the vaccinated birds compared to the unvaccinated birds as early as one week after the virulent virus challenge. In contrast, the quantity of virulent MDV genome remained similar in Meq- PBMC in both vaccinated and unvaccinated birds. Our results suggest that MD vaccination affects the dynamics of Meq-expressing, possibly transformed, cells while impact on the overall infection in the Meq- cells was not significant.

Detection of p53 mutation and serum monitoring alert caused by Marek's disease virus in poultry.

BACKGROUND: Marek's disease (MD) is a chicken neoplastic disease, which brings huge economic losses to the global poultry industry. The wild type p53, a tumor suppressor gene, plays a key role in blocking cell cycle, promoting apoptosis, and maintaining the stability of the genome. However, the mutant p53 losses its tumor inhibitory role and become an oncogene when a mutation has happened. RESULTS: The mutation rate of p53 was 60% in the experimentally and naturally infected chickens. The mutations included point-mutations and deletions, and mostly located in the DNA-binding domain. The mutated p53 was expressed in various tumor tissues in an infected chicken. The mutant P53 proteins were notably accumulated in the cytoplasm due to the loss in the function of nuclear localization. Unlike the study on human cancer, the concentrations of P53 in the serums of MD infected chicken were significantly lower than the control group. CONCLUSIONS: The p53 mutations were apparent in the development of MD. P53 and P53 antibody level in serum could be a useful marker in the diagnosis and surveillance of MD.

Environmental pollutants modulate RNA and DNA virus-activated miRNA-155 expression and innate immune system responses: Insights into new immunomodulative mechanisms.

Many persistent organic pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), have high immunomodulating potentials. Exposure to them, in combination with virus infections, has been shown to aggravate outcomes of the infection, leading to increased viral titers and host mortality. Expression of immune-related microRNA (miR) signaling pathways (by host and/or virus) have been shown to be important in determining these outcomes; there is some evidence to suggest pollutants can cause dysregulation of miRNAs. It was thus hypothesized here that modulation of miRNAs (and associated cytokine genes) by pollutants exerts negative effects during viral infections. To test this, an in vitro study on chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEF) exposed to a PCB mixture (Aroclor 1260) and then stimulated with a synthetic RNA virus (poly(I:C)) or infected with a lymphoma-causing DNA virus (Gallid Herpes Virus 2 [GaHV-2]) was conducted. Using quantitative real-time PCR, expression patterns for mir-155, pro-inflammatory TNFα and IL-8, transcription factor NF-κB1, and anti-inflammatory IL-4 were investigated 8, 12, and 18 h after virus activation. The study showed that Aroclor1260 modulated mir-155 expression, such that a down-regulation of mir-155 in poly(I:C)-treated CEF was seen up to 12 h. Aroclor1260 exposure also increased the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory genes after 8 h in poly(I:C)-treated cells, but levels in GaHV-2-infected cells were unaffected. In contrast to with Aroclor1260/poly(I:C), Aroclor1260/GaHV-2-infected cells displayed an increase in mir-155 levels after 12 h compared to levels seen with either individual treatment. While after 12 h expression of most evaluated genes was down-regulated (independent of treatment regimen), by 18 h, up-regulation was evident again. In conclusion, this study added evidence that mir-155 signaling represents a sensitive pathway to chemically-induced immunomodulation and indicated that PCBs can modulate highly-regulated innate immune system signaling pathways important in determining host immune response outcomes during viral infections.

Attenuation of a recombinant Marek's disease virus lacking the meq oncogene and evaluation on its immune efficacy against Marek's disease virus.

SC9-2 is a recombinant Marek's disease virus (MDV) strain lacking the meq oncogene. Previous study demonstrated that SC9-2 virus provides good protection against challenge with a very virulent MDV rMd5, but it induces immunosuppressive effects in specific pathogen-free (SPF) chickens. In the present study, SC9-2 was serially passaged on chicken embryo fibroblast (CEF) cell cultures. The pathogenicity and immune efficacy of SC9-2/10th and SC9-2/40th against rMd5 were evaluated. Animal experimental results showed that SC9-2/10th and SC9-2/40th showed no lethality or tumorigenicity in SPF chickens. Body weight of chickens inoculated with SC9-2/40th were significantly higher than that of the chickens inoculated with SC9-2/10th but lower than that of the uninoculated controls. The severity of bursa and thymus atrophy (BTA) and spleen enlargement in SC9-2/40th-inoculated chickens were also weaker than the SC9-2/10th-inoculated ones but stronger than the uninoculated controls. Chickens inoculated with SC9-2/40th and SC9-2/10th showed similar antibody levels induced by H9N2 subtype avian influenza virus/Newcastle disease virus inactivated vaccines, both of which were lower than the uninoculated controls. Replication of SC9-2/40th was significantly lower than SC9-2/10th in feather follicle epithelium (FFE) of infected chickens. The immune protection index of SC9-2/40th was also lower than that of SC9-2/10th, but the difference was not significantly, and both of which were significant higher than that of the commercial MDV vaccine CVI988/Rispens. The results of our studies demonstrated that SC9-2/40th showed weaker severity of BTA, spleen enlargement, and body weight loss and lower replication level in FFE than SC9-2/10th in SPF chickens. However, SC9-2/40th was able to confer better immune protection as compared with CVI988/Rispens vaccination in SPF chickens. In conclusion, serially attenuation of SC9-2 in CEFs reduced the lymphoid organ atrophy and replication in SPF chickens, and the immune protective efficacy of attenuated viruses was still superior than CVI988/Rispens.

Vaccinal efficacy of molecularly cloned Gallid alphaherpesvirus 3 strain 301B/1 against very virulent Marek's disease virus challenge.

Marek's disease virus (MDV), a causative agent of Marek's disease, has evolved its virulence partly because the current control strategies fail to provide sterilizing immunity. Gallid alphaherpesvirus 3 (GaHV-3) and turkey herpesvirus have been developed as bivalent vaccines to improve upon the level of protection elicited by single formulations. Since the in vitro passage of vaccines can result in attenuation, a GaHV-3 strain 301B/1 was cloned as a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) by inserting the mini-F replicon into the virus genome. A fully infectious virus, v301B-BAC, was reconstituted from the 301B/1 BAC clone and had similar growth kinetics comparable to that of the parental 301B/1 virus with strong reactivity against anti-301B/1 chicken sera. Protective efficacies of v301B-BAC, parental 301B/1, and SB-1 vaccine were evaluated against a very virulent MDV Md5 challenge. Clinical signs were significantly lower in the v301B-BAC vaccinated groups (24-25 %), parental 301B/1 (29 %) compare to that of non-vaccinated control (100%) and the removal of BAC sequences from v301B-BAC genome further reduced this to 17 %. The protective indices of v301B-BACs (75-76 %) were comparable with those of both the 301B/1 and the SB-1 vaccine (71%). Removal of the mini-F replicon resulted in a reconstituted virus with a protective index of 83 %. The shedding of challenge virus was notably lower in the v301B-BAC, and v301B-delBAC vaccinated groups. Overall, the protective efficacy of the 301B-BAC-derived vaccine virus against a very virulent MDV challenge was comparable to that of the parental 301B/1 virus as well as the SB-1 vaccine virus.

Revisiting cellular immune response to oncogenic Marek's disease virus: the rising of avian T-cell immunity.

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is a highly oncogenic alphaherpesvirus that causes deadly T-cell lymphomas and serves as a natural virus-induced tumor model in chickens. Although Marek's disease (MD) is well controlled by current vaccines, the evolution of MDV field viruses towards increasing virulence is concerning as a better vaccine to combat very virulent plus MDV is still lacking. Our understanding of molecular and cellular immunity to MDV and its immunopathogenesis has significantly improved, but those findings about cellular immunity to MDV are largely out-of-date, hampering the development of more effective vaccines against MD. T-cell-mediated cellular immunity was thought to be of paramount importance against MDV. However, MDV also infects macrophages, B cells and T cells, leading to immunosuppression and T-cell lymphoma. Additionally, there is limited information about how uninfected immune cells respond to MDV infection or vaccination, specifically, the mechanisms by which T cells are activated and recognize MDV antigens and how the function and properties of activated T cells correlate with immune protection against MDV or MD tumor. The current review revisits the roles of each immune cell subset and its effector mechanisms in the host immune response to MDV infection or vaccination from the point of view of comparative immunology. We particularly emphasize areas of research requiring further investigation and provide useful information for rational design and development of novel MDV vaccines.

IFNα and IFNγ Impede Marek's Disease Progression.

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is an alphaherpesvirus that causes Marek's disease, a malignant lymphoproliferative disease of domestic chickens. While MDV vaccines protect animals from clinical disease, they do not provide sterilizing immunity and allow field strains to circulate and evolve in vaccinated flocks. Therefore, there is a need for improved vaccines and for a better understanding of innate and adaptive immune responses against MDV infections. Interferons (IFNs) play important roles in the innate immune defenses against viruses and induce upregulation of a cellular antiviral state. In this report, we quantified the potent antiviral effect of IFNα and IFNγ against MDV infections in vitro. Moreover, we demonstrate that both cytokines can delay Marek's disease onset and progression in vivo. Additionally, blocking of endogenous IFNα using a specific monoclonal antibody, in turn, accelerated disease. In summary, our data reveal the effects of IFNα and IFNγ on MDV infection and improve our understanding of innate immune responses against this oncogenic virus.

Towards a mechanistic understanding of the synergistic response induced by bivalent Marek's disease vaccines to prevent lymphomas.

BACKGROUND: Marek's disease (MD) is a lymphoproliferative disease of chickens caused by Marek's disease virus (MDV), an oncogenic α-herpesvirus. Since 1970, MD has been controlled by widespread vaccination; however, more effective MD vaccines are needed to counter more virulent MDV strains. The bivalent vaccine combination of SB-1 and herpesvirus of turkey (HVT) strain FC126 has been widely used. Nonetheless, the mechanism(s) underlying this synergistic effect has not been investigated. METHODS: Three experiments were conducted where SB-1 or HVT were administered as monovalent or bivalent vaccines to newly hatched chickens, then challenged five days later with MDV. In Experiment 1, levels of MDV replication in PBMCs were measured over time, and tumor incidence and vaccinal protection determined. In Experiment 2, MDV and vaccine strains replication levels in lymphoid organs were measured at 1, 5, 10, and 14 days post-challenge (DPC). In Experiment 3, to verify that the bursa was necessary for HVT protection, a subset of chicks were bursectomized and these birds plus controls were similarly vaccinated and challenged, and the levels of vaccinal protection determined. RESULTS: The efficacy of bivalent SB-1 + HVT surpasses that of either SB-1 or HVT monovalent vaccines in controlling the level of pathogenic MDV in PBMCs until the end of the study, and this correlated with the ability to inhibit tumor formation. SB-1 replication in the spleen increased from 1 to 14 DPC, while HVT replicated only in the bursa at 1 DPC. The bursa was necessary for immune protection induced by HVT vaccine. CONCLUSION: Synergy of SB-1 and HVT vaccines is due to additive influences of the individual vaccines acting at different times and target organs. And the bursa is vital for HVT to replicate and induce immune protection.

Avian oncogenic herpesvirus antagonizes the cGAS-STING DNA-sensing pathway to mediate immune evasion.

The cellular DNA sensor cGMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) detects cytosolic viral DNA via the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) to initiate innate antiviral response. Herpesviruses are known to target key immune signaling pathways to persist in an immune-competent host. Marek's disease virus (MDV), a highly pathogenic and oncogenic herpesvirus of chickens, can antagonize host innate immune responses to achieve persistent infection. With a functional screen, we identified five MDV proteins that blocked beta interferon (IFN-ß) induction downstream of the cGAS-STING pathway. Specifically, the MDV major oncoprotein Meq impeded the recruitment of TANK-binding kinase 1 and IFN regulatory factor 7 (IRF7) to the STING complex, thereby inhibiting IRF7 activation and IFN-ß induction. Meq overexpression markedly reduced antiviral responses stimulated by cytosolic DNA, whereas knockdown of Meq heightened MDV-triggered induction of IFN-ß and downstream antiviral genes. Moreover, Meq-deficient MDV induced more IFN-ß production than wild-type MDV. Meq-deficient MDV also triggered a more robust CD8+ T cell response than wild-type MDV. As such, the Meq-deficient MDV was highly attenuated in replication and lymphoma induction compared to wild-type MDV. Taken together, these results revealed that MDV evades the cGAS-STING DNA sensing pathway, which underpins the efficient replication and oncogenesis. These findings improve our understanding of the virus-host interaction in MDV-induced lymphoma and may contribute to the development of novel vaccines against MDV infection.

Study of Efficacy and Replication of Recombinant Vector Vaccines by Using Turkey Herpesvirus Combined with Other Marek's Disease Vaccines.

Several recombinant turkey herpesviruses (rHVTs) have been developed within the past decades, and they are now used commercially worldwide. In broiler chickens, rHVTs are usually administered alone, but in long-living birds they are used in combination with Marek's disease (MD) vaccines of other serotypes (i.e., CVI988). The objectives of this work were to 1) evaluate protection against MD conferred by HVT and two rHVTs when combined with CVI988 and 2) optimize the use of rHVT in combination with CVI988 to maximize replication of rHVT without compromising MD protection. Various vaccine protocols, all using rHVT or HVT at the recommended dose (RD), were evaluated. Protocols evaluated included in ovo vaccination with HVT+CVI988 or rHVT+CVI988 (using either the double dose [DD] or the RD of CVI988), day of age vaccination of rHVT+CVI988 at DD, and revaccination protocols using rHVT in ovo followed by CVI988 at DD at day of age. Our results show that, when combined with CVI988, HVT and rHVTs confer a similar level of protection against MD (>90%) regardless of whether CVI988 was used at RD or at DD. However, the combination of rHVT with CVI988 at DD resulted in reduced replication rates of rHVT (60%-76% vs. 95%-100%). Our results show that such a negative effect could be avoided without jeopardizing MD protection by administering CVI988 at RD (if combined in ovo with rHVT) or administered rHVT first in ovo followed by CVI988 at DD at day of age.

Estudio de la eficacia y replicación de vacunas con vectores recombinantes mediante el uso del virus del herpes del pavo combinado con otras vacunas contra la enfermedad de Marek. Varios herpesvirus de pavo recombinantes (rHVT) se han desarrollado en las últimas décadas y ahora se utilizan comercialmente en todo el mundo. En pollos de engorde, los rHVT generalmente se administran solos, pero en aves de vida larga se usan en combinación con vacunas contra la enfermedad de Marek (MD) de otros serotipos (especialmente, CVI988). Los objetivos de este trabajo fueron 1) evaluar la protección contra la enfermedad de Marek conferida por herpesvirus de pavo (HVT9 y por dos rHVT cuando se combinan con la cepa CVI988 y 2) optimizar el uso de rHVT en combinación con la cepa CVI988 para maximizar la replicación de rHVT sin comprometer la protección contra la enfermedad de Marek. Se evaluaron varios protocolos de vacunas, todos con rHVT o con HVT a la dosis recomendada (RD). Los protocolos evaluados incluyeron la vacunación in ovo con HVT + CVI988 o rHVT + CVI988 (usando la dosis doble o la dosis recomendada de la cepa CVI988), la vacunación al día de la edad con rHVT + CVI988 con dosis doble, y los protocolos de revacunación usando rHVT seguido por la cepa CVI988 con dosis doble al día de edad. Los resultados muestran que cuando se combinan con CVI988, HVT y rHVT confieren un nivel de protección similar contra la enfermedad de Marek (> 90%) independientemente de que la cepa CVI988 se haya usado a la dosis recomendada o con dosis doble. Sin embargo, la combinación de rHVT con la cepa CVI988 con doble dosis produjo una reducción en las tasas de replicación de rHVT (60% ­76% vs. 95% ­100%). Estos resultados muestran que dicho efecto negativo podría evitarse sin poner en peligro la protección contra la enfermedad de Marek administrando la cepa CVI988 a la dosis recomendada (si se combina in ovo con rHVT) o administrando rHVT primero in ovo, seguido de CVI988 con dosis doble al día de la edad.

PFOS mediates immunomodulation in an avian cell line that can be mitigated via a virus infection.

BACKGROUND: Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are environmentally persistent and bioaccumulative chemicals. Immunomodulation is among the most concerning of toxic effects linked with PFAS exposure in mammalian models. However, no studies had yet shown this to be true in birds. Thus, we designed and conducted the first study to determine if PFASs could cause immunomodulation in birds. Secondly, we wanted to determine the effects on an avian host when exposed not only to immunomodulating chemicals, but also to a viral challenge. The aim, to determine if PFAS mediated immunmodulation functionally affects a pathogen challenge for a host. As innate immune system signalling pathways initiate crucial responses against a pathogen challenge, and are lesser studied than their adaptive counterparts, we focused on these pathways. To provide the first information on this, an in vitro experiment was designed and performed using chicken embryo fibroblasts exposed to perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) (22 ppm) and immune markers characterised before and after being infected with gallid herpesvirus-2 (GaHV-2). RESULTS: The expression of two pro-inflammatory cytokines, namely interleukin 8 (IL-8) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), the nuclear factor 'kappa-light-chain-enhancer' of activated B-cells (NF-κB), and the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 4 (IL-4) were investigated in various scenarios. These results showed that exposure to PFOS decreased immune gene expression in chicken fibroblasts from 36 h post-exposure. Next, it was shown that this decrease could be mitigated by infection with gallid herpesvirus-2, which increased gene expression back to the baseline/control levels. CONCLUSIONS: Not only is this the first study to provide the expected evidence that PFOS has immunomodulatory potential in birds, it also provides unexpected data that virus infections can mitigate this negative effect. Thereby, further research, including in vivo and in situ studies, on the impact of PFOS on host-virus interactions is now warranted, as it has been overlooked and might contribute to our understanding of recent disease outbreaks in wildlife. The mechanisms by which gallid herpesvirus mitigates immunomodulation were beyond the scope of this study, but are now of interest for future study.

Suspension culture of Marek's disease virus and evaluation of its immunological effects.

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is a cell-associated α-herpesvirus of chickens. It is difficult to grow MDV in suspension culture. Therefore, MDV vaccines are currently produced using adherent primary chicken embryo fibroblasts, and on a large scale this is labour-intensive and costly. In this study, the CVI988 strain of MDV was inoculated into chicken fibroblast cell line UMNSAH/DF-1 (DF-1) cultured by microcarrier suspension for the proliferation experiment. Moreover, the effects of culture conditions, such as inoculation method, multiplicity of infection (MOI), microcarrier concentration, and pH value, on the proliferation of MDV were investigated. The results demonstrated that the maximum viral load of 64.76 ± 2.64 × 106 PFU/flask in a working volume of 100 ml could be obtained using synchronous cell seeding and inoculation method at an MOI of 0.02 and a microcarrier concentration of 5 g/l at pH 7.2. At the same time, the CVI988/DF-1 vaccines prepared by the microcarrier culture process and the traditional adherent cell culture process (CVI988/Rispens) were compared through bird experiments. We found a protective rate of 94.4% using the CVI988/DF-1 vaccine with specific pathogen-free chickens that was equivalent to that of the commercial vaccine CVI988/Rispens (protection rate of 94.1%). In this study, the MDV CVI988/DF-1 vaccine prepared by the microcarrier suspension culture of DF-1 cells could provide effective immune protection for specific pathogen-free chickens, providing a reference for the prevention and control of MD and further development of a large-scale bioreactor for producing the MD vaccine.

Comparison of exosomes purified via ultracentrifugation (UC) and Total Exosome Isolation (TEI) reagent from the serum of Marek's disease virus (MDV)-vaccinated and tumor-bearing chickens.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) is a collective term used to refer microparticles, exosomes, and apoptotic bodies produced by a variety of cells and released into interstitial spaces and bodily fluids. Serum exosomes can serve as invaluable biomarkers, containing m/miRNAs, lipids, and proteins, indicative of various conditions. There are currently limited studies on the characterization and mutual consensus of biomarker profiles of serum exosomes purified by different methods. Here we compared the advantages and disadvantages of two commonly used serum exosome purification procedures including ultracentrifugation (UC) and Total Exosome Isolation (TEI) reagent, by analyzing exosome size distribution, concentration, morphology and miRNA expression profiles. Serum was obtained from Marek's disease virus (MDV)-infected chickens that were either vaccinated against Marek's disease (MD), and thus protected, or unvaccinated and bearing MDV-induced tumors. Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) were performed to evaluate particle size, concentration, and morphological integrity, respectively. Our results indicate that the size distribution of particles purified by either procedure is consistent with that of exosomes (30-150 nm). TEI reagent generated higher yields and co-isolated additional EV populations that are slightly larger (∼180 nm). Based on the miRNA expression profiles from a previous high throughput sequencing experiment of exosome small RNAs, we selected six cellular and four MDV1 miRNAs, to validate their expression in UC- and TEI-purified exosomes. miRNA expression profiles displayed relative correlation between the two procedures, but distinctive differences were observed in abundance with TEI-purified exosomes showing higher miRNA expression consistent with higher yield than those purified by UC. TEI-purified exosomes from vaccinated chickens exhibited greater expression of tumor suppressor miRNA, gga-mir-146b and least expression of oncomiR, gga-mir-21 compared to those obtained from tumor-bearing chickens. We propose that gga-mir-146 and -21 can serve as serum exosome biomarkers for vaccine-induced protection and MD tumors respectively.